Category: Philosophy

 

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Copyright © Donald Robertson, 2013-2018.  All rights reserved.

In the third century AD, Diogenes Laertius described an ancient philosophical “succession” that began with Socrates and led through the major figures in the Cynic tradition down to the Stoic school, ending with Chrysippus.  The diagram on this page illustrates his account of this philosophical lineage.  Below are a list of some of the most important figures in the Stoic tradition, including the major Cynic precursors.  I’ve indented less well-known or minor figures.  Links are to pages on Wikipedia but you can also find a Wikipedia navigation menu for Stoicism.  The precise chronological order is difficult to determine in some cases and so I’ve followed a rough chronology, placing the names of historically-related figures together.

The Cynic Succession

Socrates, c. 469 BC – 399 BC, the pre-eminent Greek philosopher.  He introduced the application of dialectic to ethical questions, especially the definition of the cardinal virtues, and the philosophical way of life.  There’s some evidence that certain Stoics considered themselves to be ultimately followers of Socrates.  Likewise, Epictetus mentions him twice as often as Zeno, the founder of the Stoa.

Antisthenes, 445 – 365 BC, the friend and student of Socrates, who founded a small sect after his death, and (perhaps doubtfully) was claimed to have been the ultimate founder of the Cynic school.

Diogenes of Sinope, 412/404 – 323 BC, founder of the Cynic philosophical tradition; he probably never met Antisthenes, although he may have been inspired by his writings.

Crates of Thebes, 365 – 285 BC, Diogenes’ most famous follower, and the most important teacher of Zeno of Citium.

Zeno of Citium, c. 334 BC – c. 262 BC, began his philosophical career as a follower of Crates, and clearly adopted the Cynic lifestyle, apparently for twenty years, before founding his own school, the Stoa.

Diogenes Laertius claims that the Stoics were part of a wider Ionian philosophical tradition, stretching back to the pre-Socratic philosophers Thales and Anaximander.  They were clearly influenced by Heraclitus, who stands in this tradition, although, curiously, Diogenes Laertius does not mention him as a major precursor of Stoicism for some reason.  Zeno reputedly wrote a book entitled On Pythagoreanism and the influence of many Neopythagorean ideas can be seen in the works of Epictetus and Seneca, in the Roman Imperial period.  However, the most important precursor of Stoicism was probably Socrates.  We’re told it was the desire to emulate his example, which he read about in Xenophon’s Memorabilia, that inspired Zeno to begin studying philosophy.  Zeno then spent twenty years studying philosophy at Athens, attaching himself to three major Socratic sects:

• The Cynics, whose philosophy was his first and most important influence, after he became a follower of Crates of Thebes.
• The Megarian school, who specialised in logic and dialectic, but held a moral philosophy similar in some ways to the Cynics; Zeno studied under Stilpo the head of the school, probably the most popular philosophical teacher of his day, but also under members of the “Dialectician” sect associated with this school, particularly Diodorus Cronus.
• The Academy of Plato, where Zeno studied under the scholarchs Xenocrates and later his successor Polemo; Xenocrates had been a student of Plato, the founder of the school.

Athens at this time was full of thinkers influenced by Socrates.  Zeno was steeped in this Socratic atmosphere.  He was exposed to the teachings of Socrates through these three major schools, which Diogenes Laertius places in a lineage going back to the immediate circle of students surrounding Socrates.  The Cynic succession, he claims, was founded by Antisthenes, whereas the Megarian school being founded by Euclid and the Academy by Plato, that would mean these schools derive from three associates of Socrates himself.  The suggestion may be that different schools developed different aspects of Socrates’ original teaching, which were later re-united by the Stoic school.

A fourth Socratic influence was Xenophon, another friend of Socrates.  Although his small school had ceased to exist by this time, Zeno was inspired by his writings portraying Socrates as a pre-eminent sage.  It should also be noted that the Stoics appear to show more interest in poetry and drama than the other philosophical schools.  They frequently quote Homer and Euripides in particular, and such writings clearly had some influence on them, perhaps mainly in providing examples of tragic figures who they would see as pathologically attached to wealth or reputation, although also sometimes they were a source of positive sayings and examples.  Incidentally, a well-known tradition held that some of Euripides’ plays were co-authored by Socrates so the obvious interest of the Stoics in them could perhaps be more evidence of their dedication to the Socratic tradition.

The Early Stoa (Athens)

Zeno of Citium, c. 334 BC – c. 262 BC, was the founder of the Stoa, as we’ve seen.  These are some of his most notable followers, including several who appear to have broken away from the Stoic school, to some extent.

Philonides of Thebes, named by Diogenes Laertius as a student of Zeno.  Zeno sent him along with Persaeus to be an advisor at the court of King Antigonus.

Callippus of Corinth, named by Diogenes Laertius as a student of Zeno.  Nothing more is known about him.

Posidonius of Alexandria, named by Diogenes Laertius as a student of Zeno.  Nothing more is known about him.

Athenodorus of Soli, named by Diogenes Laertius as a student of Zeno.  He was the brother of the poet Aratus of Soli.  They share their home city with Chrysippus.

Zeno of Sidon, named by Diogenes Laertius as a student of Zeno.

Aristo of Chios, c. 320 – 250 BC, the most important “heterodox” Stoic mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, was an associate of Zeno who insisted on an ethical philosophy resembling Cynicism, and rejected the importance of studying logic and physics.  Diogenes Laertius said Aristo introduced the Stoic doctrine of indifferent things.

Herillus of Carthage, fl. 260 BC, an important “heterodox” Stoic mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, apparently a student of Zeno, who became critical of him, he defined the goal of life as knowledge and everything between virtue and vice as “indifferent”.

Dionysius of Heraclea, dubbed “the Renegade”, 330 – 250 BC, another important “heterodox” Stoic mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, who abandoned Stoicism in favour of the Cyrenaic school, who viewed pleasure as the chief good in life.

Aratus, 315/310 – 340 BC, an ancient poet-philosopher who studied under Zeno, his Stoic-influenced didactic poem on natural philosophy  Phaenomena survives today and was quoted by St. Paul in Acts of the Apostles, speaking to an audience of Epicurean and Stoic philosophers in Greece.

Persaeus of Citium, 307/306 – 243 BC, a favoured student of Zeno, who was sent in his place to become court advisor to King Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia, and became tutor to his son, Halcyoneus.

King Antigonus II Gonatas, ruler of Macedonia, who was interested in philosophy, particularly Cynicism, reputedly attended the lectures of Zeno, and was later had his student Persaeus as a court advisor.  He appears to have greatly admired Zeno, although it’s not clear if he considered himself a Stoic.

Cleanthes of Assos, c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC, was the second scholarch.  He was not renowned as a great intellectual.  Passages from his Hymn to Zeus have survived, and these perhaps suggest an emphasis on fatalism and piety.

Sphaerus of Borysthenes, c. 285 BC – c. 210 BC, was an important student of both Zeno and Cleanthes.  At some point he lived in Sparta and acted as advisor to King Cleomenes III.  Later, after Chrysippus refused, Cleanthes sent Sphaerus to live at the court of the Egyptian king  Ptolemy IV Philopater, whom he would tutor in Stoic philosophy.

Apollophanes of Antioch, fl. 250 BC, a Stoic philosopher, who was a student and friend of Aristo of Chios, although he later wrote a book criticising his love of pleasure.

Chrysippus of Soli, c. 279 BC – c. 206 BC, was the third scholarch.  He was typically contrasted with Cleanthes because he was renowned as one of the greatest intellectuals of the ancient world.  He reputedly wrote over 700 books and was greatly preoccupied with the theoretical development of Stoicism.

Aristocreon, fl. 200 BC, was the nephew of Chrysippus and his student.

Zeno of Tarsus, fl. 200 BC, was the fourth scholarch.

Diogenes of Babylon, c. 230-150/140 BC, the fifth scholarch, visited Rome as part of an important ambassadorial delegation, in 155 BC, along with the Academic Skeptic Carneades and the Aristotelian Critolaus.  He was the teacher of Antipater.  This sparked Roman interest in philosophy, particularly Stoicism.

Apollodorus of Seleucia, fl. 150 BC, an important student of Diogenes of Babylon, who may have been influential in promoting the Cynic-Stoic succession reported by Diogenes Laertius (see above).  He said that the Cynic way of life is a short-cut to virtue.

Archedemus of Tarsus, fl. 140 BC, an important Stoic mentioned by Cicero, Seneca, and Epictetus, who reputedly left Athens to found a Stoic school in Babylon.  Epictetus mentions him in connection with Antipater as one of the main authors his students apparently read.

Crinis, c. 2nd century BC, Stoic teacher mentioned by Diogenes Laertius and Epictetus.  We don’t know when he lived, although it’s believed Epictetus implies he lived at the same time or not long after Archedemus.

Diotimus, fl. c. 100 BC, Stoic who was found guilty of forging letters alleged to be by Epicurus in an attempt to discredit him.

Boethus of Sidon, student of Diogenes of Babylon, who denied that the cosmos was an animate being, and wrote four volumes of commentary on Aratus.

Crates of Mallus, fl. 2nd century BC, Stoic natural philosopher who created the first known globe of the Earth.

Basilides, fl. 2nd century BC, about whom we know little.

Antipater of Tarsus, d. 130/129 BC, was the sixth scholarch, a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon, and teacher of Panaetius.  Frequently mentioned by Epictetus in the same breath as Archedemus, also of Tarsus.

Heraclides of Tarsus, fl. 2nd century BC, was a friend and student of Antipater, he knew Athenodorus Canaanites and both argued that moral offences are not equal but have degrees.

The Middle Stoa (Roman Republic)

During this transitional and politically-chaotic period, the scholarch Panaetius travelled to Rome to lecture and Stoicism started to become increasingly popular outside of Greece, particularly among important statesman and cultural figures in the Roman Republic.  At the same time, key Stoics began to assimilate elements of Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy, which may have contributed to the eventual disappearance of the formal institution of the Stoa and the dispersal of its remaining students and teachers.

Panaetius of Rhodes, c. 185 – c. 110/09 BC, was the seventh and  last scholarch of the Athenian Stoa, after his death the formal institution of the Stoa apparently fragmented, and eventually disappeared.  He did a great deal to spread interest in Stoicism among the Roman elite, through his lectures at Rhodes and membership of the Scipionic Circle.

Dardanus of Athens, c. 160 BC – c. 85 BC, was a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater of Tarsus, mentioned by Cicero as one of the heads of the remaining Stoic school at Athens (95 BC), along with Mnesarchus, after the main school had apparently moved to Rhodes.  By this time the school had possibly fragmented, following the death of Panaetius.

Mnesarchus of Athens, c. 160 – c. 85 BC, was a student of Antipater of Tarsus, who was apparently one of the leaders of the residual Stoic school at Athens after the death of Panaetius.

Hecato of Rhodes, fl. 100 BC, an important Stoic philosopher and student of Panaetius.

Gaius Blossius of Cumae, fl. 2nd century BC, Italian student of Antipater of Tarsus, who counselled Tiberius Gracchus.

The Scipionic Circle, a group of intellectuals gathered around Scipio Aemilianus, including the Stoic philosopher Panaetius.

Scipio the Younger, Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, 185 – 129 BC, influential Roman statesman and general, who led the final destruction of Carthage, formed the Scipionic Circle, including the Stoic scholarch Panaetius.

Gaius Laelius Sapiens, b. c. 188 BC, called “the Wise”, Roman statesman who studied Stoic philosophy, close friend of Scipio the Younger; Cicero wrote a dialogue in his name about Stoic view on friendship.

Quintus Aelius Tubero, fl. 2nd century BC, a member of the Scipionic Circle, Stoic philosopher, and student of Panaetius.  He was Scipio’s nephew and also the brother-in-law of the Stoic Cato of Utica.

Publius Rutilius Rufus, fl. 2nd century BC, Roman statesman, orator, and historian, who became a Stoic, studying under Panaetius, and a member of the Scipionic Circle.

Quintus Mucius Scaevola Augur, Roman politician and member of the Scipionic Circle, who studied Stoicism under Panaetius.

Gaius Fannius, fl. 2nd century BC, Roman statesman who studied Stoicism under Panaetius at Rhodes, and became a member of the Scipionic Circle.

Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, c 154 BC – 74 BC, Roman equestrian who was a Stoic and teacher of Cicero and Varro.

Posidionius of Rhodes, c. 135 BCE – 51 BC, was Panaetius’ most famous student, and may have led a Stoic school relocated to Rhodes, although he may eventually have abandoned Stoicism altogether.

Jason of Nysa, 1st century BC, grandson of Posidonius and Stoic philosopher.  Succeeded Posidonius as head of the Stoic school at Rhodes.

Asclepiodotus Tacitus, 1st century BC, students of Posidonius quoted by Seneca in Natural Questions. He wrote a work entitled Quaestionum Naturalium Causae, and a short work by him on military tactics survives today.

In 87 BC, during the period when Posidonius apparently led the Stoa, the Roman dictator Sulla sacked Athens and most of the formal philosophical schools closed down, perhaps fleeing to preserve their precious founding texts, transporting them to the safety of other locations.

A couple of years after the death of Posidonius, from 49-45 BC the Great Roman Civil War took place, in which the tyrant Julius Caesar overthrew the Roman Republic and established himself as dictator.  Cato (a Stoic) and Cicero (an Academic) were major political opponents of Caesar.  Cato ended up leading the remnants of the Republican army in their last stand against Caesar at Utica in North Africa.  Seneca’s nephew, the Stoic poet Lucan would later describe the events of the Civil War in his epic poem Pharsalia, which (paradoxically) portrays Cato the Younger as the real (moral) victor, though defeated by Caesar, and as the supreme Stoic hero of the Roman world.

Marcus Tullius Cicero, 106 BC – 43 BC, Roman statesman and philosopher, not a Stoic but an Academic who was greatly influenced by Stoicism and one of our main sources for discussion of Stoic ideas, friend and rival of Cato; he was particularly influenced by the more eclectic Stoicism of Panaetius.

Diodotus the Stoic, died 59 BC, was a Stoic philosopher and friend of Cicero, who lived in his house and instructed Cicero in Stoic doctrines, especially logic.

Cato the Younger, 95 – 46 BC, Roman statesman, philosopher, and military leader, who gave his life at the end of the Civil War in defiance of Julius Caesar, did not write or teach but Cicero calls him the “complete Stoic”, and he was revered by subsequent generations as a Stoic hero.

Porcia Catonis, c. 70 BC – 43 BC, the daughter of Cato the Younger and wife of Brutus, may have been a Stoic like her father.  Plutarch appears to strongly imply that she was a Stoic.

Antipater of Tyre, d. c. 45 BC, Stoic philosopher and friend of Cato the Younger, who introduced him to Stoic philosophy.

Athenodorus Cordylion, of Tarsus, fl. 1st century BC, Stoic philosopher and keeper of the library at Pergamon, where he allegedly expunged passages from Zeno’s texts, seemingly those alluding to the more controversial aspects of Cynicism; he was persuaded by Cato to become his resident philosopher and relocated to Rome.

A series of civil wars followed during the post-Republic period and the Roman Empire was eventually founded when Octavian was made the first Roman emperor, and named Augustus, in 27 BC.  The Roman Imperial period therefore follows.

The Late Stoa (Roman Empire)

By the Roman Imperial period, the formal institution of the Stoa appears to have come to an end, but Stoic lecturers still exist for at least another two centuries, and Marcus Aurelius is the last famous Stoic we know about.  Three of the most important Stoics of this period can be seen as aligned to the same branch of Stoicism: Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.  During this period, Stoicism lacked an orthodox centre of teaching and became somewhat fragmented, although there also seems to have been some desire to return to the orthodox teachings of the schools founders, through close study of the texts of Chrysippus in particular.

Athenodorus Canaanites, c. 74 BC – 7 AD, Stoic philosopher, student of Posidonius, and the first Stoicism tutor of Octavian, who became Augustus, the first Emperor and founder of the Roman Empire.

Arius Didymus of Alexandria, fl. end of 1st century BC – start of 1st century AD, Stoic tutor of Octavian (later the emperor Augustus).

Nestor of Tarsus, fl. 1st century AD, said (by Lucian) to have been a Stoic and tutor to the Emperor Tiberius.

Marcus Antistius Labeo, d. 10-11 AD, influential Stoic-influenced Roman jurist.

Thrasyllus of Mendes, or of Alexandria, fl. 1st century BC, friend and tutor to the Emperor Tiberius, who acquired an interest in Stoicism from him, according to the orations of Themistius.  He served as Court Astrologer but was a literary commentator by profession and edited the works of Plato and Democritus.  Not known to be himself a Stoic but seems to have introduced Tiberius to Stoicism.

Strabo, 64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD, was a Greek geographer, historian, and philosopher, who was a friend and student of the Stoic teacher Athenodorus Canaanites.  By some accounts Athenodorus had considerable influence over his thought.  However, he would be best described as an eclectic thinker, influenced by Stoicism, perhaps, rather than a Stoic philosopher per se.

Horace, 65 – 8 BC, the leading Roman lyric poet during the reign of Augustus, was influenced by Epicureanism but increasingly by Stoicism in his later writings.

Quintus Sextius the Elder, fl. 50 BC, Roman philosopher who combined Stoicism, Cynicism, and Neopythagoreanism, much admired by Seneca, who studied with his follower Sotion.  Founded the first Roman school of philosophy called The School of the Sextii, which Seneca said did not like to call itself “Stoic” but in his estimation was basically Stoic.

Sotion, fl. 1st century AD, philosopher who combined Neopythagoreanism and Stoicism, a teacher in the School of the Sextii, who taught Seneca.

Marcus Manilius, fl. 1st century AD, author of the Astronomica, which survives today, generally believed to be mainly influenced by Stoicism, but also Pythagoreanism and Platonism.

Attalus, fl. 25 AD, Stoic philosopher and teacher of Seneca, whom he much admired and frequently quotes.

Seneca the Younger, c. 4 BC – AD 65, was not a Stoic teacher but probably the focus of a small informal circle of Stoic friends, and tutor to the Emperor Nero.

Lucan, 39 – 65 AD, the nephew of Seneca, a Stoic-influenced poet, and author of the Pharsalia, which portrays Cato as a Stoic sage

Persius, 34 – 62 AD, a Stoic poet, and friend of Lucan, several of whose Stoic-influenced Satires survive

Cornutus, fl. 60 AD, a Stoic philosopher and teacher, his Compendium of Greek Theology survives today.

Chaeremon of Alexandria, fl. 1st century AD, superintendent over part of the Alexandrian library.  Travelled to Rome to tutor the young Nero.  Wrote a text on Egyptian religion, interpreting it as a series of metaphors for the worship of nature.

Gaius Valerius Flaccus, died 90 AD, Roman poet who wrote a Latin Argonautica, generally considered to be influenced by Stoicism, particularly the first book.  It only survives in incomplete form today.

Rubellius Plautus, 33 – 62 AD, political rival of Nero, descended from Mark Antony.  His critics claimed he was a follower of Stoicism. In 60 AD, Nero banished Plautus and his family to his estate in Asia, and he was accompanied by the Stoic teacher Musonius Rufus.  After further rumours began to spread that Plautus was planning a rebellion against Nero, he was beheaded.  Rubellius Plautus, Barea Soranus, and Thrasea Paetus are sometimes known as the Stoic Martyrs.

Publius Clodius Thrasea, d. 66 AD, Roman senator and Stoic martyr known for his principled opposition to Emperor Nero.  He was related by marriage to Persius.  He was put on trial alongside Helvidius and Agrippinus and executed by Nero, the others were given lesser penalties.  Marcus Aurelius refers to him with admiration.

Barea Soranus, died 65 or 66 AD.  Roman senator and Stoic martyr, was a friend of Rubellius Plautus and was accused of inciting a rebellion against Nero in Asia.  Egnatius Celer, his Stoic teacher, turned informer against him after being bribed by Nero.  He was condemned to death and committed suicide.  He was distantly related to Marcus Aurelius.

Helvidius Priscus, fl. 1st century AD, Roman senator and Stoic philosopher and son-in-law of Thrasea.  He admired Brutus, the assassin of Caesar.  Executed by Emperor Vespasian.  Epictetus and Marcus held him in high regard.

Fannia, fl. 100 AD, was the wife of Helvidius Priscus and a notable Roman woman.  It’s uncertain if she was a Stoic, like her husband, but she appears to act like one.  She was part of the political opposition to Nero.

Herennius Senecio, died 93 AD, was part of the Stoic opposition to Domitian, under whose rule he was executed.  He wrote a biography celebrating the life of Helvidius Priscus.

Paconius Agrippinus, fl. 1st century AD, Roman senator and Stoic philosopher, accused alongside Thrasea and sent into exile.  He was held in very high regard by Epictetus.

Arulenus Rusticus, c. 35 – 95 AD, another Roman Senator and follower of Thrasea.  Ancestor of Junius Rusticus, the tutor of Marcus Aurelius.  Executed by Domitian for writing a public speech praising Thrasea.

Publius Egnatius Celer, fl. c. 60 AD, Stoic teacher of Barea Soranus, later accused by another Stoic, Musonius Rufus.

Musonius Rufus, c. 20/30 AD – 79/101 AD, was the pre-eminent Stoic teacher of the Roman Imperial period, the head of an important school, but not an official scholarch of the Stoa.  Fronto wrote in a letter to Marcus Aurelius: “What in our own recollection of Euphrates, Dio, Timocrates, Athenodotus? What of their master Musonius?”, suggesting that all of the above were students of Musonius Rufus.

Dio Chrysostom, c. 40 – 115 AD, eclectic philosopher who combined elements of Stoicism, Platonism and Cynicism, mainly known as a rhetorician.  However, there’s a possible reference to him in Marcus’ Meditations and Fronto appears to refer to him as a student of Musonius.  He was friends with Euphrates of Tyre.

Euphrates, c. 35 – 118 AD, Stoic philosopher and friend of Emperor Hadrian, there are several conflicting claims about his place of birth.  Pliny the Younger met him in Syria.  Marcus appears to mention him in passing (Meditations, 10.31), as does Epictetus.  Fronto appears to allude to him as a student of Musonius Rufus.

Epictetus, AD 55 – 135, was Musonius’ most influential student, and began lecturing at his own Stoic school during the same period as his teacher.

Arrian of Nicomedia, AD c. 86 – c. 160, student of Epictetus who recorded the Discourses and Handbook.  Promoted under Hadrian to consul and governor of Cappadocia.  Themistius calls him a “philosopher” and Lucian calls him a “disciple” of Epictetus.

Athenodotus, fl. 2nd century AD, Stoic philosopher and rhetorician, who studied under Musonius Rufus, is mentioned by Marcus Aurelius in passing in The Meditations, and was a friend and teacher of Fronto, mentioned in his letters.

Timocrates of Heraclea, fl. 2nd century AD, Stoic philosopher and rhetorician, mentioned by Lucian as a teacher of Demonax the Cynic, and apparently mentioned by Fronto as a student of Musonius Rufus.

Hierocles, fl. 2nd century AD, Stoic philosopher, author of Elements of Ethics

Demonax, c. 70 – 170 AD, a celebrated Cynic philosopher (rather than a Stoic per se).  However, he was both a student of Epictetus and a contemporary of Marcus Aurelius, and was highly-regarded by the Athenians, and praised by his student Lucian.

Apollonius of Chalcedon, fl. 2nd century AD, was Stoic tutor to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, during his youth.  Also taught in Athens before being recalled to Rome to tutor Marcus.

Sextus of Chaerona, fl. 160 AD, Stoic lecturer who taught Marcus Aurelius, and was the nephew of Plutarch.

Junius Rusticus, c. 100 – 170 AD, highly-distinguished Stoic philosopher and personal tutor of Marcus Aurelius, who provided Marcus with his copy of the lectures (probably the Discourses) of Epictetus.  He was a descendant of Arulenus Rusticus, a prominent member of Thrasea’s Stoic circle.

Claudius Maximus, fl. 2nd century AD, was tutor to Marcus Aurelius. He was appointed legate under Hadrian then proconsul of Africa under Antoninus Pius. Apuleius, author of The Golden Ass, mentions his austere (Stoic) creed and extensive military service.  He probably died around 158 AD.

Cinna Catulus, fl. 2nd century AD, unknown outside of The Meditations and The Historia Augusta, where we’re told he was a Stoic tutor to Marcus Aurelius.

Marcus Aurelius, 121 – 180 AD, was Roman Emperor and a student of Stoicism, who attended lectures by Stoic teachers, but seems most influenced by his reading of Epictetus’ Discourses, although they did not meet.  Marcus was distantly related to Barea Soranus, one of the members of the Stoic Opposition martyred under Nero.

Marcus, Epictetus, and Musonius may perhaps be seen as representing one tradition in Roman Stoicism, perhaps different to that represented by Seneca, their predecessor, whom none of them mention in the surviving literature.  The lectures of Musonius and Epictetus were transcribed in Greek, the language used by Marcus in composing The Meditations.  Seneca, however, like Cicero, his predecessor, wrote only in Latin.

We don’t hear much about the Stoics after the death of Marcus Aurelius.  Hence, Stoicism was gradually superseded by Neoplatonism, whose main pioneer was Plotinus, 205 – 270 AD, which was, in turn, ultimately eclipsed by Christianity.  Several early Christian and Gnostic authors appear to be influenced to varying degrees by Stoicism.

Tertullian, c. 155 – 240 AD, was a church father, born in Carthage, who explicitly drew on certain aspects of Stoic metaphysics, although he was also very critical of Stoicism and philosophy in general.  He may have studied Stoicism earlier in his life.  Tertullian also claimed that the Gnostic Marcion was heavily indebted to Stoicism.