Category: Philosophy

What the Stoics said about kingship, applied to leadership

What the Stoics actually said about kingship, applied to leadership

How better or how otherwise could a man be a good ruler or live a good life than by studying philosophy? For my part, I believe that the good king is straightway and of necessity a philosopher, and the philosopher a kingly person. — Musonius Rufus

The ancient Stoics believed that it was essential for anyone who wants to be a leader to study philosophy. Indeed, the most famous Stoic of all was Marcus Aurelius, a Roman emperor, who saw Stoicism as essential training for his role. The Stoic teachers who came before him wrote entire books on leadership, under titles such as On Kingship or The Statesman. Most of these are lost, unfortunately, but in the 1st century AD, the famous Stoic teacher Musonius Rufus, gave a lecture titled That kings also should study philosophy, which survives today. Kingship is one type of leadership, but as we’ll see, if we adapt the words of Musonius’ lecture, most of what he says is still very relevant, and provides us, in summary form, with a Stoic manual for modern-day leadership.

Leaders also should study Stoicism

One day, one of the kings of Syria, which was at the time a client-state of the Roman empire, was visiting Rome. He sought counsel from the Stoic philosopher, Musonius Rufus, who advised him as follows concerning the qualities required to become a great leader. (I’m paraphrasing his advice here and putting it into modern language.)

“Do not imagine,” said Musonius, “that there is anyone for whom it is more appropriate to study philosophy than you, and that is precisely because you are a king.” The primary duty of a king, or any leader, is to protect and benefit his people, but for this he must, of course, know what is good or bad for them, what is helpful or harmful, etc. Philosophers, such as the Stoics, study precisely these questions, having made it their business to learn what contributes to a person’s happiness or unhappiness. It therefore seems obvious, says Musonius, that leaders should train in this type of philosophy.

In order to illustrate this further, he divides the qualities of a leader into four headings, which correspond to the cardinal virtues of philosophy: justice, temperance, fortitude, and wisdom.

Justice / Fairness

First of all, it is the responsibility of, and indeed necessary for, our leaders to possess the virtue of justice. They must be good judges of what is fair or unfair, helpful or harmful, among their people, so that each individual receives exactly what he deserves. How could anyone manage justice among others, asks Musonius, if he is not a just person himself? How, moreover, could anyone be just who has not studied the nature of justice?

Leaders should therefore study philosophy, because without doing so they will have a limited and superficial understanding of virtues such as fairness and justice. Someone who has invested time in studying the concept of justice will, of course, grasp it better than someone who has not. We all know that people typically argue with one another about what is just or fair or beneficial, and have differing opinions. That is because most of them have not dedicated themselves to formulating a clear definition of justice, in the way that philosophers have. As leaders are responsible for many individuals, he says, it is more incumbent upon them than a private citizen to have a clear understanding of the nature of justice.

Temperance / Moderation

Secondly, it is essential for a good leader to exercise the virtue of self-control and also to help his subjects acquire the same quality. When leaders exhibit genuine temperance and moderation there is no recklessness either on their part or on the part of their people. Lack of self-control brings about the ruin both of the leader and his people. How, though, can anyone acquire self-control unless he makes an effort to curb his desires? And how could any leader who lacks discipline help his people to become disciplined?

Stoic philosophy teaches such self-control, particularly by teaching us how to rise above pleasure and greed, and to admire simplicity and avoid extravagance. Stoicism also trains us in a form of self-awareness, such as learning to control our own tongue. It leads to discipline, order, and courtesy, and generally improves our character and behaviour. When an ordinary person has these qualities they live with dignity in their personal life. If they are present in a leader, though, they make him worthy of being in a position of leadership.

Fortitude / Courage

Third, a true leader must exhibit the virtue of courage. How else would someone acquire fearlessness, though, than by having a firm conviction that death and hardships are not evils? For many people are afraid of death and of hardships in life but Stoic philosophy teaches us how to be unafraid of such things. Hence, leaders ought to possess courage, and they must set about the study of philosophy, in order to acquire the insights that dispel fear.

Prudence / Wisdom

Leaders must also have the virtue of wisdom. It is necessary for them to handle verbal disagreements, just as kings and generals must sometimes face military conflicts. When a leader is weak at handling disputes, and weak at defending their opinion, they are often misled into accepting the false as true, which is the price we pay for lacking wisdom.

Philosophy by its very nature confers upon its students perhaps more than anything else the ability to handle debates, to distinguish the false from the true, and to refute the one and to confirm the other. Even professional speakers are confounded when philosophers confront them with logic. Any aspiring leader should therefore wish to be capable of rational debate. He must study philosophy in order to master reasoning, so that he no longer need fear being misled by others.

Musonius says that a great king in the distant past was like a father-figure and a “living law” to his people. The ideal ruler brought about good government and harmony among his subjects, putting an end to lawlessness and dissension by his very example. How could anyone become such a role model, though, unless he had a good education and cultivated all the virtues mentioned above?

True leaders must therefore aspire to be as flawless as possible, in their words and actions, because their people look toward them to set an example. If there’s any other sort of education which could guide a person to virtue, it should be placed alongside philosophy, says Musonius, and a comparison made to see which is more suitable for producing a good leader. If we can find a better guide than philosophy in this regard, by all means, we should use it.

Some arts, he says, only cultivate the body, while others cultivate the mind, but not in ways that lead to self-control. Only Stoic philosophy aims to teach genuine self-control by teaching a set of values, which focus on making virtue our highest good and priority in life. What else would be more useful to a leader who wished to become good than the study of this sort of philosophy? A good leader, he says, is necessarily a philosopher, and a good philosopher, by nature, exhibits leadership qualities.

Is it possible, Musonius asks, for anyone to be a good leader unless he is a good person? Is a good person always a philosopher? Musonius is certain that he must be insofar as philosophy, the love of wisdom, is actually the pursuit of goodness, or what we call self-improvement today. A good leader is, therefore, necessarily a philosopher, committed to the pursuit of self-improvement and wisdom.

However, are all genuine philosophers necessarily good leaders? The key qualities of a leader consist in the ability to govern people and cities well, and to be worthy of being put in charge. A Stoic philosopher, says Musonius, aspires to be intelligent, disciplined, dignified, and a good judge of what is just, fair, and appropriate. He is efficient when it comes to putting his plans into effect, patient under hardship, courageous, resolute in the face of danger, and also beneficent, helpful, and humane. Could anyone be found more fit or better able to govern? Even if such a person does not have many people under him, he is not for that reason less of a leader, for it is enough to lead one’s friends or one’s family or, for that matter, only oneself.

It is possible… for the world’s worst ruler to have many subjects, and for the world’s greatest ruler to have none.

Indeed, a physician who attends few patients is no less a physician than the one who attends many as long as he has skill and experience in healing. In the same way the musician who teaches only a few pupils is no less a musician than the one who teaches many, provided he knows the art of music. It is possible, in other words, for the world’s worst ruler to have many subjects, and for the world’s greatest ruler to have none. Indeed, the title of “leader” belongs to the person who has only one or two subjects just much as to the one who has many, as long as he has the character of a true leader, and thus deserves the name. Musonius concludes that Socrates called philosophy the “statesmanlike” and “royal” discipline because one who masters it immediately becomes a genuine leader.

After Musonius Rufus had spoken, the Syrian king who was consulting him told him how grateful he was for his words of advice. He added, “In return for this, ask of me whatever you wish for I shall refuse you nothing.” “The only favor I ask of you is to remain faithful to this teaching, since you find it commendable,” Musonius replied, “for in this way and no other will you best please me and benefit yourself.”

I recently joined author Ryan Holiday on his Daily Stoic podcast, for a conversation about our mutual fascination with the life and…

I recently joined author Ryan Holiday on his Daily Stoic podcast, for a conversation about our mutual fascination with the life and philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. You can listen to our conversation on the website or download the podcast episode from Apple, Spotify, and elsewhere.

Please check it out and let me know what you think of our chat! You can comment below or tag DonJRobertson on Twitter with any thoughts or questions you might have about Marcus Aurelius.

I’ve just finished writing my third book about him, Verissimus, which was chosen by Amazon Editor’s as Best History Book! Check out all the reviews online if you’re not sure whether graphic novels are your thing or not — so far people new to the medium have found it helped them understand Marcus’ life from a richer perspective!

Some trivia…

1. Did you know that Marcus lead a dance troupe in his youth? He also wrestled and boxed. Hence his scattered references to dancing and fighting in the Meditations.

2. The Romans were more conscious than we are of insulting people by omitting to mention them. We call it damnatio memoriae when they struck someone’s name out of history. Who’s missing from the list of people Marcus admires in book one of the Meditations? (Clue: he names two emperors he knew personally, but not a third, he also names most of his tutors, except the most famous one!)

3. From internal textual evidence we can guesstimate that the Meditations was probably written between late 169CE and early 175 CE, which broadly coincides with the First Marcomannic War and the initial years of the Antonine Plague. It also seems to be shortly after Marcus’ main Stoicism tutor, Junius Rusticus, died — perhaps Marcus started writing as a consequence of losing his beloved mentor!

When I visited Carnuntum, in Austria, as part of my research for Verissimus, where Marcus stationed himself during the early years of the war, I asked the director of archeology if they’d unearthed anything that might be of value to historians interested in Marcus Aurelius. We know Marcus wrote part of the Meditations there, because he actually says “At Carnuntum” in the rubric of one of the early chapters.

He told me that the funerary stele of a member of the praetorian guard had been found there, dated 171 CE. If one of the emperor’s personal cohort of bodyguards died there, it’s pretty certain that Marcus must have been at Carnuntum during that specific year! It’s really cool when archeological evidence lines up with textual evidence in this way!

What my research told me about the Stoic Roman Emperor

What my research told me about the Stoic Roman Emperor

I have spent a lot of time researching Marcus Aurelius. I first read his notes about applying Stoic philosophy to daily life, the Meditations, one of the most cherished philosophical and self-help classics of all time, over 25 years ago. Since then, I’ve written six books on Stoicism — three in a row have been about the life of Marcus Aurelius! The first was a self-help book, based on vignettes from his life, called How to Think Like a Roman Emperor, the most recent was a prose biography of him for Yale University Press, and between them came a graphic novel called Verissimus: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius, from which the illustrations in this article are borrowed. Here are some of the most interesting things I learned during my research…

1 Marcus led a dance troupe

As a young boy, Marcus was appointed to several important positions due to the influence of the Emperor Hadrian. One of them was the College of the Salii or leaping priests, a Roman religious order supposedly founded by the legendary King Numa, from whom Marcus’ family claimed descent. The Salii recited obscure chants and performed an athletic military dance, bearing archaic shields and spears, in honour of Mars, the god of war. These rituals were meant to train youths for the physical exertions of battle.

When Marcus refers to dancing in the Meditations, therefore, he’s drawing on a wealth of experience, which makes his comments much more personally meaningful. For example, being well-acquainted with both wrestling and dancing, he wrote:

The art of life is more like the wrestler’s art than the dancer’s, in respect of this, that it should stand ready and firm to meet onsets which are sudden and unexpected. — Meditations, 7.61

Marcus appears to have relished his training in dance, though, and eventually went on to become the leader of the Salii.

2 Marcus enjoyed toilet humour

In the Meditations, Marcus reflects on the evolution of Greek tragedy into Old Comedy, with its “magisterial freedom of speech,” which he says inspired Diogenes the Cynic. Marcus felt the art of comedy had gradually declined, though, into something trivial (Meditations, 11.6). In other words, he believed that old-fashioned cynical humour could serve a moral purpose.

Elsewhere, for instance, he illustrates a series of philosophical musings about the superficial nature of material wealth by quoting a scatalogical joke from the poet Menander, a representative of New Comedy, who nevertheless appeals to Marcus. It concerns a rich man who has so many possessions that there’s nowhere left for him to empty his bowels (Meditations, 5.12).

3 Marcus may have read lost books by Epictetus

The philosopher Marcus quotes most frequently is the Stoic Epictetus, who died in Greece when Marcus was still a boy at Rome, so they appear to have narrowly missed the opportunity to meet one another. Marcus tells us that his main Stoic tutor, Junius Rusticus, gave him a set of notes from Epictetus’ lectures from his own private collection (Meditations, 1.7). As Marcus quotes several times from the Discourses of Epictetus that survive today, it’s very likely those are the texts to which he’s referring.

One ancient source tells us there were originally eight volumes of Epictetus’ Discourses whereas only four survive today…

One ancient source tells us there were originally eight volumes of Epictetus’ Discourses whereas only four survive today — half of them, in other words, are lost. Marcus, however, also quotes sayings of Epictetus that are otherwise unknown to us today, so it’s possible he had actually read the four missing volumes of Epictetus’ Discourses. Moreover, Arrian, the student who transcribed and edited the Discourses, says that originally they were circulated in private, and were not known to the public until a later date. When Marcus stresses that Rusticus gave him a copy from his private collection he may be referring to the fact that, at the time, the very existence of these scrolls was still a closely-guarded secret!

4 Marcus had reservations about Seneca

None of the surviving writings from the Stoics who came after Seneca mention his name. Marcus never mentions Seneca in the Meditations, although Seneca was very famous as Emperor Nero’s Latin rhetoric tutor, who later became his speechwriter and most senior advisor. This could be because Roman authors who write in Greek, like Marcus, tend not to cite those who wrote in Latin, like Seneca. However, we know that Marcus had read Seneca’s writings because of a cache of letters between Marcus and his own rhetoric tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto.

Fronto mentions Seneca several times. Although they had much in common, as Latin rhetoric tutors to emperors, Fronto seems to despise Seneca’s writings. At one point he goes so far as to say that searching for wise sayings in Seneca’s writings would be like grubbing around in the filth at the bottom of a sewer, just to retrieve a few silver coins! Frustratingly, we do not possess the letters in which Marcus responds to these comments but it’s clear from Fronto’s letters that Marcus had read Seneca, and was perhaps defending him, at least to some extent. It’s possible that they were more familiar with Seneca’s political speeches, rather than the Moral Letters he is best known for today. See, for example, Seneca’s On Clemency, where he portrays Nero as a virtual philosopher king, insisting, somewhat brazenly, that the hands of the emperor, who had recently murdered his younger brother, Britannicus, were free from any stain of blood.

There’s a passage in the Roman historian Cassius Dio suggesting that Thrasea, the leader of the Stoic Opposition against Emperor Nero, made it known that Seneca should be subjected to damnatio memoriae, the Roman practice of eliminating someone’s name from history. While these men risked their lives opposing Nero’s tyranny, Seneca was assisting him, and defending his actions in the Senate. Epictetus, who was originally the slave of Nero’s Greek secretary had a ringside seat for the scandal that engulfed Seneca. He viewed Thrasea’s circle of Stoics as moral examplars, and may therefore have omitted mention of Seneca out of respect for them. Marcus mentions that he views Nero as a tyrant ruled by animal-like passions, so he may have followed Epictetus in distancing himself from Seneca for that reason.

5 Marcus was opposed by a faction of enemies at Rome

This is clear from the fact that he faced a civil war in 176 CE, led by his most senior general in the east, Avidius Cassius. However, Cassius did not act alone. He commanded seven legions, each of which was led by officers, including generals who would normally be of the senatorial class. He appointed his own praetorian prefects and cohorts, or personal bodyguard. He was also supported by the prefect of Egypt, the most important province in the empire. Our sources make it clear that a number of senators and other officials were involved in the faction supporting Cassius’ rebellion against Marcus.

The reasons for the civil war are unclear but the faction opposing Marcus appear to have been military hawks who felt that his handling of the protracted war along the Danube frontier had placed too much emphasis on diplomacy — Marcus was too much of a military dove or peacemaker for their liking. However, the rebellion only lasted a few months and Cassius was eventually assassinated by his own officers.

There are also several pieces of gossip critical of Marcus and his family reported in the Roman histories. Several of them, on close inspection, seem designed to cast doubt on the legitimacy of his son Commodus. For example, it was rumoured that the Empress Faustina was unfaithful, and slept with sailors and gladiators. One obvious explanation was that these rumours originated in propaganda spread by the faction who instigated the civil war against Marcus and Commodus. They may have wanted to portray Commodus as an illegitimate heir to the throne, so that it would be easier for Avidius Cassius to seize power instead. As it happens, the surviving statues make it apparent that Commodus bore a striking physical resemblance to his father, casting doubt on the claim that he was someone else’s son!

6 Marcus’ mother was a highly educated woman

Marcus’ father died when he was about four years old, so other men in his family took responsibility for his upbringing, but his mother, Domitia Lucilla, also appears to have taken him back into her own care eventually. Marcus loved her dearly and she spent her final years living with him in the imperial palace of Emperor Antoninus Pius. She was a physically small but otherwise quite imposing woman. She had inherited a brick and tile factory, and clay fields, from her side of the family, making her one of the leading figures in the Roman construction industry, and probably one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Rome. Many bricks have been unearthed with her name stamped on them.

She was also an intellectual, and appears to have had a reputation as a philhellene or lover of Greek culture. Herodes Atticus, the leading figure of the Second Sophistic, and the most prominent Greek intellectual and orator of the time, was raised in the same household as her, and they seem to have remained family friends. She also seems to have been friends with Marcus’ main Stoic tutor, Junius Rusticus, and with his Latin rhetoric tutor, Fronto. Indeed, Fronto writes to her in Greek, addressing her as “the Mother of Caesar”, but he nervously asks young Marcus in one letter to check the grammar of his Greek because he doesn’t want to appear foolish or uncivilized. The fact that the leading Latin rhetorician of the time is intimidated when writing in Greek to Lucilla, shows that she was held in high regard as an intelligent and cultured woman.

She also appears to have taken Fronto’s young wife under her wing, as a kind of student. It’s likely that she was the patron of a salon, or circle of intellectuals, who visited their household, to discuss Greek literature, when Marcus was growing up. She probably had considerable influence over the selection of Marcus’ tutors. As it happens, in addition to the leading Greek and Latin rhetoricians of the time, there seem to be an unusual number of Stoic philosophers among Marcus’ teachers. We’re also told that he was introduced to the study of philosophy at the exceptionally young age of twelve. This may, perhaps, be evidence of his mother’s influence.

7 Marcus throws shade on two very important people

Romans often show their disapproval by omitting or removing mention of someone’s name— a practice known as damnatio memoriae, which could be viewed as an ancient precursor of “cancelling” someone! There are two very striking examples of this in the Meditations. (Not including Seneca!)

The first is the Emperor Hadrian, Marcus’ adoptive grandfather. Hadrian groomed Marcus for power, and effectively had him placed in line to the throne, after Antoninus Pius. Marcus knew Hadrian pretty well, having been brought to live in his villa for the last six months or so of his life, when his mental and physical health rapidly deteriorated, and he engaged in political purges, including against members of Marcus’ own family. Marcus absolutely heaps praise on Antoninus Pius, in Book One of the Meditations, when listing the family members and tutors he most admires. He says nothing about Hadrian. In fact, he does mention Hadrian a few times later in the book but only to use him as an example of someone once powerful, who is now long dead, and will one day be forgotten. Worse, several of the qualities Marcus praises in Antoninus appear to be implicit criticisms of Hadrian. For instance, when Marcus says things about Antoninus like “nobody could ever accuse him of being a Sophist”, it often comes across as though he wants to add the words: unlike Hadrian!

The second is Herodes Atticus, Marcus’ main Greek rhetoric tutor. Herodes was a family friend, and the leading figure of the Second Sophistic movement. He was the most celebrated intellectual in the Roman empire at that time. However, we know he was very critical of Stoic philosophy. Marcus makes no mention of him whatsoever anywhere in the Meditations. He literally has nothing positive to say about him. Instead, he praises all of his Stoic tutors, and even an unnamed tropheus, or nanny-tutor, probably a slave or freedman, who cared for him when he was a small child. The notoriously pompous Herodes would have been utterly aghast at being ignored in this way, especially when Marcus makes a point of expressing gratitude for what a nameless slave taught him.

8 Marcus may have been a budding historian

In a letter to Marcus, Fronto says in passing “I gave you advice on what you should do to prepare yourself for writing a work of history, since that is what you wished.” Moreover, Marcus seems to allude in the Meditations to having been compiling notes for a history of ancient Greeks and Romans.

Don’t be sidetracked anymore! You’re not going to read your notebooks, or your accounts of ancient Roman and Greek history, or the commonplace books you were saving for your old age. — Meditations, 3.14

We can actually glimpse clues throughout the Meditations of Marcus’ attitude toward famous Greeks and Romans, and they would have been somewhat controversial. For instance, he writes:

Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, what are they in comparison with Diogenes the Cynic and Heraclitus and Socrates? — Meditations, 8.3

He clearly prefers the philosophers and thinks the great military leaders are overrated, and somewhat morally compromised individuals, enslaved by the desire for power and glory.

9 Marcus introduced safety nets for tightrope walkers

In the ancient world, children were often trained to perform acrobatic feats for the entertainment of paying audiences. The crowds often wanted these to be as sensational and therefore dangerous as possible. One of our sources claims that Marcus Aurelius put a stop to this at Rome.

Among other illustrations of his unfailing consideration towards others this act of kindness is to be told: After one lad, a rope-dancer, had fallen, he ordered mattresses spread under all rope-dancers. This is the reason why a net is stretched them to-day. — Historia Augusta

An earlier historian, Cassius Dio, says that Marcus was famously opposed to bloodshed and therefore required the gladiators at Rome to “contend, like athletes, without risking their lives”, by fighting with blunted weapons. It’s believed that this specifically meant fighting with weapons that were able to cut but not pierce, so they would still cause superficial wounds but were less to kill and opponent.

10 Marcus was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries

The Sophist Philostratus quotes a letter which Marcus Aurelius reputedly wrote to Herodes Atticus, saying:

Do not, I say, feel resentment against me on this account, but if I have annoyed you in aught, or am still annoying you, demand reparation from me in the temple of Athena in your city at the time of the Mysteries. For I made a vow, when the war began to blaze highest, that I too would be initiated, and I could wish that you yourself should initiate me into those rites. — Lives of the Sophists

This was probably a widely-publicized event, as Marcus paid for rebuilding of the temple complex, which had been damaged during the war. The fact that he was initiated was mentioned by three different historians of the period. A bust of Marcus was placed above the main gate to the temple precinct and it still remains there as part of the ruins at modern-day Elefsina, just outside Athens.

The mysteries of Eleusis concerned the myth of the goddess Demeter, the earth mother, associated with agriculture. Several passages in the Meditations clearly evoke Eleusinian symbolism relating to ears of corn, and natural cycles of birth and death.

Life must be reaped like the ripe ears of corn. One man is born; another dies. — Meditations, 7.40

There was always an association between the Eleusinian mysteries and Stoicism as the ceremony, which lasted several days, actually began before the Stoa Poikile, the home of the Stoic school at Athens, before proceeding to nearby Eleusis.

Conclusion

We included most of these and many more anecdotes in our graphic novel, Verissimus: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. Some of these less well-known details add richness to our understanding of Marcus’ character, and that can allow us to feel his presence more when reading the Meditations, allowing him to become a three-dimensional human being.

Enter into every man’s mind and also let every other man enter into yours. — Meditations, 8.61

By really trying to picture the events of his life, and imagine ourselves in his shoes, we can immerse ourselves more fully in his use of Stoic philosophy, as a guide to living wisely.

I modified George Long’s translation. The word translated “citadel” is just acropolis in Greek. Acropolis literally means high up (as in “acro”-bat) part of the city (as in metro-”polis”). The connotation is a fortified hilltop, or a citadel, although in the English the reference to it being elevated is completely lost, which is important, because it obviously links to his other passages about the view from above, especially as he describes elsewhere looking down on agoras (or city-centres), which is actually what the Athenian acropolis looks down upon.