Author: donald

What the Stoics said about kingship, applied to leadership

What the Stoics actually said about kingship, applied to leadership

How better or how otherwise could a man be a good ruler or live a good life than by studying philosophy? For my part, I believe that the good king is straightway and of necessity a philosopher, and the philosopher a kingly person. — Musonius Rufus

The ancient Stoics believed that it was essential for anyone who wants to be a leader to study philosophy. Indeed, the most famous Stoic of all was Marcus Aurelius, a Roman emperor, who saw Stoicism as essential training for his role. The Stoic teachers who came before him wrote entire books on leadership, under titles such as On Kingship or The Statesman. Most of these are lost, unfortunately, but in the 1st century AD, the famous Stoic teacher Musonius Rufus, gave a lecture titled That kings also should study philosophy, which survives today. Kingship is one type of leadership, but as we’ll see, if we adapt the words of Musonius’ lecture, most of what he says is still very relevant, and provides us, in summary form, with a Stoic manual for modern-day leadership.

Leaders also should study Stoicism

One day, one of the kings of Syria, which was at the time a client-state of the Roman empire, was visiting Rome. He sought counsel from the Stoic philosopher, Musonius Rufus, who advised him as follows concerning the qualities required to become a great leader. (I’m paraphrasing his advice here and putting it into modern language.)

“Do not imagine,” said Musonius, “that there is anyone for whom it is more appropriate to study philosophy than you, and that is precisely because you are a king.” The primary duty of a king, or any leader, is to protect and benefit his people, but for this he must, of course, know what is good or bad for them, what is helpful or harmful, etc. Philosophers, such as the Stoics, study precisely these questions, having made it their business to learn what contributes to a person’s happiness or unhappiness. It therefore seems obvious, says Musonius, that leaders should train in this type of philosophy.

In order to illustrate this further, he divides the qualities of a leader into four headings, which correspond to the cardinal virtues of philosophy: justice, temperance, fortitude, and wisdom.

Justice / Fairness

First of all, it is the responsibility of, and indeed necessary for, our leaders to possess the virtue of justice. They must be good judges of what is fair or unfair, helpful or harmful, among their people, so that each individual receives exactly what he deserves. How could anyone manage justice among others, asks Musonius, if he is not a just person himself? How, moreover, could anyone be just who has not studied the nature of justice?

Leaders should therefore study philosophy, because without doing so they will have a limited and superficial understanding of virtues such as fairness and justice. Someone who has invested time in studying the concept of justice will, of course, grasp it better than someone who has not. We all know that people typically argue with one another about what is just or fair or beneficial, and have differing opinions. That is because most of them have not dedicated themselves to formulating a clear definition of justice, in the way that philosophers have. As leaders are responsible for many individuals, he says, it is more incumbent upon them than a private citizen to have a clear understanding of the nature of justice.

Temperance / Moderation

Secondly, it is essential for a good leader to exercise the virtue of self-control and also to help his subjects acquire the same quality. When leaders exhibit genuine temperance and moderation there is no recklessness either on their part or on the part of their people. Lack of self-control brings about the ruin both of the leader and his people. How, though, can anyone acquire self-control unless he makes an effort to curb his desires? And how could any leader who lacks discipline help his people to become disciplined?

Stoic philosophy teaches such self-control, particularly by teaching us how to rise above pleasure and greed, and to admire simplicity and avoid extravagance. Stoicism also trains us in a form of self-awareness, such as learning to control our own tongue. It leads to discipline, order, and courtesy, and generally improves our character and behaviour. When an ordinary person has these qualities they live with dignity in their personal life. If they are present in a leader, though, they make him worthy of being in a position of leadership.

Fortitude / Courage

Third, a true leader must exhibit the virtue of courage. How else would someone acquire fearlessness, though, than by having a firm conviction that death and hardships are not evils? For many people are afraid of death and of hardships in life but Stoic philosophy teaches us how to be unafraid of such things. Hence, leaders ought to possess courage, and they must set about the study of philosophy, in order to acquire the insights that dispel fear.

Prudence / Wisdom

Leaders must also have the virtue of wisdom. It is necessary for them to handle verbal disagreements, just as kings and generals must sometimes face military conflicts. When a leader is weak at handling disputes, and weak at defending their opinion, they are often misled into accepting the false as true, which is the price we pay for lacking wisdom.

Philosophy by its very nature confers upon its students perhaps more than anything else the ability to handle debates, to distinguish the false from the true, and to refute the one and to confirm the other. Even professional speakers are confounded when philosophers confront them with logic. Any aspiring leader should therefore wish to be capable of rational debate. He must study philosophy in order to master reasoning, so that he no longer need fear being misled by others.

Musonius says that a great king in the distant past was like a father-figure and a “living law” to his people. The ideal ruler brought about good government and harmony among his subjects, putting an end to lawlessness and dissension by his very example. How could anyone become such a role model, though, unless he had a good education and cultivated all the virtues mentioned above?

True leaders must therefore aspire to be as flawless as possible, in their words and actions, because their people look toward them to set an example. If there’s any other sort of education which could guide a person to virtue, it should be placed alongside philosophy, says Musonius, and a comparison made to see which is more suitable for producing a good leader. If we can find a better guide than philosophy in this regard, by all means, we should use it.

Some arts, he says, only cultivate the body, while others cultivate the mind, but not in ways that lead to self-control. Only Stoic philosophy aims to teach genuine self-control by teaching a set of values, which focus on making virtue our highest good and priority in life. What else would be more useful to a leader who wished to become good than the study of this sort of philosophy? A good leader, he says, is necessarily a philosopher, and a good philosopher, by nature, exhibits leadership qualities.

Is it possible, Musonius asks, for anyone to be a good leader unless he is a good person? Is a good person always a philosopher? Musonius is certain that he must be insofar as philosophy, the love of wisdom, is actually the pursuit of goodness, or what we call self-improvement today. A good leader is, therefore, necessarily a philosopher, committed to the pursuit of self-improvement and wisdom.

However, are all genuine philosophers necessarily good leaders? The key qualities of a leader consist in the ability to govern people and cities well, and to be worthy of being put in charge. A Stoic philosopher, says Musonius, aspires to be intelligent, disciplined, dignified, and a good judge of what is just, fair, and appropriate. He is efficient when it comes to putting his plans into effect, patient under hardship, courageous, resolute in the face of danger, and also beneficent, helpful, and humane. Could anyone be found more fit or better able to govern? Even if such a person does not have many people under him, he is not for that reason less of a leader, for it is enough to lead one’s friends or one’s family or, for that matter, only oneself.

It is possible… for the world’s worst ruler to have many subjects, and for the world’s greatest ruler to have none.

Indeed, a physician who attends few patients is no less a physician than the one who attends many as long as he has skill and experience in healing. In the same way the musician who teaches only a few pupils is no less a musician than the one who teaches many, provided he knows the art of music. It is possible, in other words, for the world’s worst ruler to have many subjects, and for the world’s greatest ruler to have none. Indeed, the title of “leader” belongs to the person who has only one or two subjects just much as to the one who has many, as long as he has the character of a true leader, and thus deserves the name. Musonius concludes that Socrates called philosophy the “statesmanlike” and “royal” discipline because one who masters it immediately becomes a genuine leader.

After Musonius Rufus had spoken, the Syrian king who was consulting him told him how grateful he was for his words of advice. He added, “In return for this, ask of me whatever you wish for I shall refuse you nothing.” “The only favor I ask of you is to remain faithful to this teaching, since you find it commendable,” Musonius replied, “for in this way and no other will you best please me and benefit yourself.”

I recently joined author Ryan Holiday on his Daily Stoic podcast, for a conversation about our mutual fascination with the life and…

I recently joined author Ryan Holiday on his Daily Stoic podcast, for a conversation about our mutual fascination with the life and philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. You can listen to our conversation on the website or download the podcast episode from Apple, Spotify, and elsewhere.

Please check it out and let me know what you think of our chat! You can comment below or tag DonJRobertson on Twitter with any thoughts or questions you might have about Marcus Aurelius.

I’ve just finished writing my third book about him, Verissimus, which was chosen by Amazon Editor’s as Best History Book! Check out all the reviews online if you’re not sure whether graphic novels are your thing or not — so far people new to the medium have found it helped them understand Marcus’ life from a richer perspective!

Some trivia…

1. Did you know that Marcus lead a dance troupe in his youth? He also wrestled and boxed. Hence his scattered references to dancing and fighting in the Meditations.

2. The Romans were more conscious than we are of insulting people by omitting to mention them. We call it damnatio memoriae when they struck someone’s name out of history. Who’s missing from the list of people Marcus admires in book one of the Meditations? (Clue: he names two emperors he knew personally, but not a third, he also names most of his tutors, except the most famous one!)

3. From internal textual evidence we can guesstimate that the Meditations was probably written between late 169CE and early 175 CE, which broadly coincides with the First Marcomannic War and the initial years of the Antonine Plague. It also seems to be shortly after Marcus’ main Stoicism tutor, Junius Rusticus, died — perhaps Marcus started writing as a consequence of losing his beloved mentor!

When I visited Carnuntum, in Austria, as part of my research for Verissimus, where Marcus stationed himself during the early years of the war, I asked the director of archeology if they’d unearthed anything that might be of value to historians interested in Marcus Aurelius. We know Marcus wrote part of the Meditations there, because he actually says “At Carnuntum” in the rubric of one of the early chapters.

He told me that the funerary stele of a member of the praetorian guard had been found there, dated 171 CE. If one of the emperor’s personal cohort of bodyguards died there, it’s pretty certain that Marcus must have been at Carnuntum during that specific year! It’s really cool when archeological evidence lines up with textual evidence in this way!

What my research told me about the Stoic Roman Emperor

What my research told me about the Stoic Roman Emperor

I have spent a lot of time researching Marcus Aurelius. I first read his notes about applying Stoic philosophy to daily life, the Meditations, one of the most cherished philosophical and self-help classics of all time, over 25 years ago. Since then, I’ve written six books on Stoicism — three in a row have been about the life of Marcus Aurelius! The first was a self-help book, based on vignettes from his life, called How to Think Like a Roman Emperor, the most recent was a prose biography of him for Yale University Press, and between them came a graphic novel called Verissimus: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius, from which the illustrations in this article are borrowed. Here are some of the most interesting things I learned during my research…

1 Marcus led a dance troupe

As a young boy, Marcus was appointed to several important positions due to the influence of the Emperor Hadrian. One of them was the College of the Salii or leaping priests, a Roman religious order supposedly founded by the legendary King Numa, from whom Marcus’ family claimed descent. The Salii recited obscure chants and performed an athletic military dance, bearing archaic shields and spears, in honour of Mars, the god of war. These rituals were meant to train youths for the physical exertions of battle.

When Marcus refers to dancing in the Meditations, therefore, he’s drawing on a wealth of experience, which makes his comments much more personally meaningful. For example, being well-acquainted with both wrestling and dancing, he wrote:

The art of life is more like the wrestler’s art than the dancer’s, in respect of this, that it should stand ready and firm to meet onsets which are sudden and unexpected. — Meditations, 7.61

Marcus appears to have relished his training in dance, though, and eventually went on to become the leader of the Salii.

2 Marcus enjoyed toilet humour

In the Meditations, Marcus reflects on the evolution of Greek tragedy into Old Comedy, with its “magisterial freedom of speech,” which he says inspired Diogenes the Cynic. Marcus felt the art of comedy had gradually declined, though, into something trivial (Meditations, 11.6). In other words, he believed that old-fashioned cynical humour could serve a moral purpose.

Elsewhere, for instance, he illustrates a series of philosophical musings about the superficial nature of material wealth by quoting a scatalogical joke from the poet Menander, a representative of New Comedy, who nevertheless appeals to Marcus. It concerns a rich man who has so many possessions that there’s nowhere left for him to empty his bowels (Meditations, 5.12).

3 Marcus may have read lost books by Epictetus

The philosopher Marcus quotes most frequently is the Stoic Epictetus, who died in Greece when Marcus was still a boy at Rome, so they appear to have narrowly missed the opportunity to meet one another. Marcus tells us that his main Stoic tutor, Junius Rusticus, gave him a set of notes from Epictetus’ lectures from his own private collection (Meditations, 1.7). As Marcus quotes several times from the Discourses of Epictetus that survive today, it’s very likely those are the texts to which he’s referring.

One ancient source tells us there were originally eight volumes of Epictetus’ Discourses whereas only four survive today…

One ancient source tells us there were originally eight volumes of Epictetus’ Discourses whereas only four survive today — half of them, in other words, are lost. Marcus, however, also quotes sayings of Epictetus that are otherwise unknown to us today, so it’s possible he had actually read the four missing volumes of Epictetus’ Discourses. Moreover, Arrian, the student who transcribed and edited the Discourses, says that originally they were circulated in private, and were not known to the public until a later date. When Marcus stresses that Rusticus gave him a copy from his private collection he may be referring to the fact that, at the time, the very existence of these scrolls was still a closely-guarded secret!

4 Marcus had reservations about Seneca

None of the surviving writings from the Stoics who came after Seneca mention his name. Marcus never mentions Seneca in the Meditations, although Seneca was very famous as Emperor Nero’s Latin rhetoric tutor, who later became his speechwriter and most senior advisor. This could be because Roman authors who write in Greek, like Marcus, tend not to cite those who wrote in Latin, like Seneca. However, we know that Marcus had read Seneca’s writings because of a cache of letters between Marcus and his own rhetoric tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto.

Fronto mentions Seneca several times. Although they had much in common, as Latin rhetoric tutors to emperors, Fronto seems to despise Seneca’s writings. At one point he goes so far as to say that searching for wise sayings in Seneca’s writings would be like grubbing around in the filth at the bottom of a sewer, just to retrieve a few silver coins! Frustratingly, we do not possess the letters in which Marcus responds to these comments but it’s clear from Fronto’s letters that Marcus had read Seneca, and was perhaps defending him, at least to some extent. It’s possible that they were more familiar with Seneca’s political speeches, rather than the Moral Letters he is best known for today. See, for example, Seneca’s On Clemency, where he portrays Nero as a virtual philosopher king, insisting, somewhat brazenly, that the hands of the emperor, who had recently murdered his younger brother, Britannicus, were free from any stain of blood.

There’s a passage in the Roman historian Cassius Dio suggesting that Thrasea, the leader of the Stoic Opposition against Emperor Nero, made it known that Seneca should be subjected to damnatio memoriae, the Roman practice of eliminating someone’s name from history. While these men risked their lives opposing Nero’s tyranny, Seneca was assisting him, and defending his actions in the Senate. Epictetus, who was originally the slave of Nero’s Greek secretary had a ringside seat for the scandal that engulfed Seneca. He viewed Thrasea’s circle of Stoics as moral examplars, and may therefore have omitted mention of Seneca out of respect for them. Marcus mentions that he views Nero as a tyrant ruled by animal-like passions, so he may have followed Epictetus in distancing himself from Seneca for that reason.

5 Marcus was opposed by a faction of enemies at Rome

This is clear from the fact that he faced a civil war in 176 CE, led by his most senior general in the east, Avidius Cassius. However, Cassius did not act alone. He commanded seven legions, each of which was led by officers, including generals who would normally be of the senatorial class. He appointed his own praetorian prefects and cohorts, or personal bodyguard. He was also supported by the prefect of Egypt, the most important province in the empire. Our sources make it clear that a number of senators and other officials were involved in the faction supporting Cassius’ rebellion against Marcus.

The reasons for the civil war are unclear but the faction opposing Marcus appear to have been military hawks who felt that his handling of the protracted war along the Danube frontier had placed too much emphasis on diplomacy — Marcus was too much of a military dove or peacemaker for their liking. However, the rebellion only lasted a few months and Cassius was eventually assassinated by his own officers.

There are also several pieces of gossip critical of Marcus and his family reported in the Roman histories. Several of them, on close inspection, seem designed to cast doubt on the legitimacy of his son Commodus. For example, it was rumoured that the Empress Faustina was unfaithful, and slept with sailors and gladiators. One obvious explanation was that these rumours originated in propaganda spread by the faction who instigated the civil war against Marcus and Commodus. They may have wanted to portray Commodus as an illegitimate heir to the throne, so that it would be easier for Avidius Cassius to seize power instead. As it happens, the surviving statues make it apparent that Commodus bore a striking physical resemblance to his father, casting doubt on the claim that he was someone else’s son!

6 Marcus’ mother was a highly educated woman

Marcus’ father died when he was about four years old, so other men in his family took responsibility for his upbringing, but his mother, Domitia Lucilla, also appears to have taken him back into her own care eventually. Marcus loved her dearly and she spent her final years living with him in the imperial palace of Emperor Antoninus Pius. She was a physically small but otherwise quite imposing woman. She had inherited a brick and tile factory, and clay fields, from her side of the family, making her one of the leading figures in the Roman construction industry, and probably one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Rome. Many bricks have been unearthed with her name stamped on them.

She was also an intellectual, and appears to have had a reputation as a philhellene or lover of Greek culture. Herodes Atticus, the leading figure of the Second Sophistic, and the most prominent Greek intellectual and orator of the time, was raised in the same household as her, and they seem to have remained family friends. She also seems to have been friends with Marcus’ main Stoic tutor, Junius Rusticus, and with his Latin rhetoric tutor, Fronto. Indeed, Fronto writes to her in Greek, addressing her as “the Mother of Caesar”, but he nervously asks young Marcus in one letter to check the grammar of his Greek because he doesn’t want to appear foolish or uncivilized. The fact that the leading Latin rhetorician of the time is intimidated when writing in Greek to Lucilla, shows that she was held in high regard as an intelligent and cultured woman.

She also appears to have taken Fronto’s young wife under her wing, as a kind of student. It’s likely that she was the patron of a salon, or circle of intellectuals, who visited their household, to discuss Greek literature, when Marcus was growing up. She probably had considerable influence over the selection of Marcus’ tutors. As it happens, in addition to the leading Greek and Latin rhetoricians of the time, there seem to be an unusual number of Stoic philosophers among Marcus’ teachers. We’re also told that he was introduced to the study of philosophy at the exceptionally young age of twelve. This may, perhaps, be evidence of his mother’s influence.

7 Marcus throws shade on two very important people

Romans often show their disapproval by omitting or removing mention of someone’s name— a practice known as damnatio memoriae, which could be viewed as an ancient precursor of “cancelling” someone! There are two very striking examples of this in the Meditations. (Not including Seneca!)

The first is the Emperor Hadrian, Marcus’ adoptive grandfather. Hadrian groomed Marcus for power, and effectively had him placed in line to the throne, after Antoninus Pius. Marcus knew Hadrian pretty well, having been brought to live in his villa for the last six months or so of his life, when his mental and physical health rapidly deteriorated, and he engaged in political purges, including against members of Marcus’ own family. Marcus absolutely heaps praise on Antoninus Pius, in Book One of the Meditations, when listing the family members and tutors he most admires. He says nothing about Hadrian. In fact, he does mention Hadrian a few times later in the book but only to use him as an example of someone once powerful, who is now long dead, and will one day be forgotten. Worse, several of the qualities Marcus praises in Antoninus appear to be implicit criticisms of Hadrian. For instance, when Marcus says things about Antoninus like “nobody could ever accuse him of being a Sophist”, it often comes across as though he wants to add the words: unlike Hadrian!

The second is Herodes Atticus, Marcus’ main Greek rhetoric tutor. Herodes was a family friend, and the leading figure of the Second Sophistic movement. He was the most celebrated intellectual in the Roman empire at that time. However, we know he was very critical of Stoic philosophy. Marcus makes no mention of him whatsoever anywhere in the Meditations. He literally has nothing positive to say about him. Instead, he praises all of his Stoic tutors, and even an unnamed tropheus, or nanny-tutor, probably a slave or freedman, who cared for him when he was a small child. The notoriously pompous Herodes would have been utterly aghast at being ignored in this way, especially when Marcus makes a point of expressing gratitude for what a nameless slave taught him.

8 Marcus may have been a budding historian

In a letter to Marcus, Fronto says in passing “I gave you advice on what you should do to prepare yourself for writing a work of history, since that is what you wished.” Moreover, Marcus seems to allude in the Meditations to having been compiling notes for a history of ancient Greeks and Romans.

Don’t be sidetracked anymore! You’re not going to read your notebooks, or your accounts of ancient Roman and Greek history, or the commonplace books you were saving for your old age. — Meditations, 3.14

We can actually glimpse clues throughout the Meditations of Marcus’ attitude toward famous Greeks and Romans, and they would have been somewhat controversial. For instance, he writes:

Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, what are they in comparison with Diogenes the Cynic and Heraclitus and Socrates? — Meditations, 8.3

He clearly prefers the philosophers and thinks the great military leaders are overrated, and somewhat morally compromised individuals, enslaved by the desire for power and glory.

9 Marcus introduced safety nets for tightrope walkers

In the ancient world, children were often trained to perform acrobatic feats for the entertainment of paying audiences. The crowds often wanted these to be as sensational and therefore dangerous as possible. One of our sources claims that Marcus Aurelius put a stop to this at Rome.

Among other illustrations of his unfailing consideration towards others this act of kindness is to be told: After one lad, a rope-dancer, had fallen, he ordered mattresses spread under all rope-dancers. This is the reason why a net is stretched them to-day. — Historia Augusta

An earlier historian, Cassius Dio, says that Marcus was famously opposed to bloodshed and therefore required the gladiators at Rome to “contend, like athletes, without risking their lives”, by fighting with blunted weapons. It’s believed that this specifically meant fighting with weapons that were able to cut but not pierce, so they would still cause superficial wounds but were less to kill and opponent.

10 Marcus was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries

The Sophist Philostratus quotes a letter which Marcus Aurelius reputedly wrote to Herodes Atticus, saying:

Do not, I say, feel resentment against me on this account, but if I have annoyed you in aught, or am still annoying you, demand reparation from me in the temple of Athena in your city at the time of the Mysteries. For I made a vow, when the war began to blaze highest, that I too would be initiated, and I could wish that you yourself should initiate me into those rites. — Lives of the Sophists

This was probably a widely-publicized event, as Marcus paid for rebuilding of the temple complex, which had been damaged during the war. The fact that he was initiated was mentioned by three different historians of the period. A bust of Marcus was placed above the main gate to the temple precinct and it still remains there as part of the ruins at modern-day Elefsina, just outside Athens.

The mysteries of Eleusis concerned the myth of the goddess Demeter, the earth mother, associated with agriculture. Several passages in the Meditations clearly evoke Eleusinian symbolism relating to ears of corn, and natural cycles of birth and death.

Life must be reaped like the ripe ears of corn. One man is born; another dies. — Meditations, 7.40

There was always an association between the Eleusinian mysteries and Stoicism as the ceremony, which lasted several days, actually began before the Stoa Poikile, the home of the Stoic school at Athens, before proceeding to nearby Eleusis.

Conclusion

We included most of these and many more anecdotes in our graphic novel, Verissimus: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius. Some of these less well-known details add richness to our understanding of Marcus’ character, and that can allow us to feel his presence more when reading the Meditations, allowing him to become a three-dimensional human being.

Enter into every man’s mind and also let every other man enter into yours. — Meditations, 8.61

By really trying to picture the events of his life, and imagine ourselves in his shoes, we can immerse ourselves more fully in his use of Stoic philosophy, as a guide to living wisely.

I modified George Long’s translation. The word translated “citadel” is just acropolis in Greek. Acropolis literally means high up (as in “acro”-bat) part of the city (as in metro-”polis”). The connotation is a fortified hilltop, or a citadel, although in the English the reference to it being elevated is completely lost, which is important, because it obviously links to his other passages about the view from above, especially as he describes elsewhere looking down on agoras (or city-centres), which is actually what the Athenian acropolis looks down upon.

Where to go if You’re Interested in Ancient Wisdom

Where to go if You’re Interested in Ancient Wisdom

Athens, the capital of Greece, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. It also happens to be the home of western philosophy. Yet most tourists are unaware of the significance that certain locations in the city have for the history of philosophy.

Friends, and strangers, who share my love of history, often ask me what locations they should visit there.

I am originally from Scotland, emigrated to Canada about eight years ago, but recently became a permanent resident of Greece. I’ve spent a lot of time exploring Athens, doing research for various books on philosophy. (My graphic novel, Verissimus: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius, depicts scenes in the Ancient Agora and Delphi.) Friends, and strangers, who share my love of history, often ask me what locations they should visit there. So I finally decided to write this short guide to Athens for fans of ancient philosophy.

One thing worth clarifying at the outset is that ancient Greece ended up becoming part of the Roman world. In 146 BC, Greece was conquered by the Roman Republic, becoming a client state and later a province of what eventually became known as the Roman Empire. Later, under the Ottoman Empire, Greece was still referred to as the “Roman nation”. Many of the archeological ruins and museum exhibits in Athens actually date not from the classical period of Pericles and Socrates, et al., but from Roman era, particularly the rule of Emperor Hadrian.

Plato’s Academy

The Academy was one of three large gymnasia or recreational grounds in ancient Athens. It is believed to be named after a legendary hero. It contained a large grove of trees, wrestling and boxing schools, and probably running tracks, where youths would exercise naked. Older men would also gather to give speeches and discuss politics and philosophy. Socrates is believed to have discussed philosophy, walking in the grounds of the Academy. However, it is most famous for being the location where his student, Plato, later founded his school of philosophy, which became known as the “Academy” after the park in which it was located.

This was the first major institute of higher education in Western history, the forerunner of all subsequent colleges and universities. Now every “academy” is named after Plato’s original school. We know that Plato had a house in the grounds of the park, and taught here, although it’s not certain that he taught in a building, as philosophers often lectured while walking in the open air. There would have been shrines here, to Apollo and other gods, as well as libraries.

When you walk in Plato’s Academy Park you’re walking where Plato once walked, discussing philosophy, and where his body was eventually laid to rest.

It’s often forgotten that Plato’s tomb was also located in the grounds of this park, although no trace of it remains today. When you walk in Plato’s Academy Park you’re walking where Plato once walked, discussing philosophy, and where his body was eventually laid to rest. I’ve often wondered if a memorial could be built in the park reinstating the original epitaphs from Plato’s tomb in ancient Greek, which several ancient sources attest. Diogenes Laertius, for example, quotes them as saying:

Here lies the god-like man Aristocles [Plato’s birth name], eminent among men for temperance and the justice of his character. And he, if ever anyone, had the fullest meed of praise for wisdom, and was too great for envy.

And we’re told it was accompanied, perhaps on another part of the tomb by the following:

Earth in her bosom here hides Plato’s body, but his soul hath its immortal station with the blest, Ariston’s son, whom every good man, even if he dwell afar off, honours because he discerned the divine life.

Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, later studied philosophy here for many years, under Plato’s successors. When the Roman dictator, Sulla, besieged Athens in 87 BC, his troops sacked the buildings of the Academy and cut down its trees for timber. Roughly a decade later, Cicero, the celebrated Roman orator and statesman, visited the Academy, and describes it being completely empty. It’s worth quoting what he says in full:

When we reached the walks of the Academy, which are so deservedly famous, we had them entirely to ourselves, as we had hoped. Thereupon Piso [Cicero’s companion] remarked: “Whether it is a natural instinct or a mere illusion, I can’t say; but one’s emotions are more strongly aroused by seeing the places that tradition records to have been the favourite resort of men of note in former days, than by hearing about their deeds or reading their writings. My own feelings at the present moment are a case in point. I am reminded of Plato, the first philosopher, so we are told, that made a practice of holding discussions in this place; and indeed the garden close at hand yonder not only recalls his memory but seems to bring the actual man before my eyes.” — Cicero, De Finibus

Today the Academy survives as a large public park called Akadimia Platonos (Plato’s Academy). It is located in one of the poorer suburbs of Athens, about 20 minutes walk from the Acropolis, and the centre of the modern city. Few tourists visit the Akadimia Platonos Park but it’s popular with locals who walk their dogs, jog, and bring their children to play there. You can see the ruins of several buildings from classical antiquity, including the foundations of the palaestra or wrestling school, and a peristyle building, which could perhaps have been connected with Plato’s school. There is a statue of Plato in the nearby square, close to which there is also a small digital museum commemorating Plato’s philosophy.

When I visited Plato’s Academy Park, it surprised me that there wasn’t already an international conference centre nearby. Who wouldn’t want to attend a conference or workshop at the original location of Plato’s Academy? I started talking to my friends and colleagues about this idea and before I knew it we’d set up a nonprofit organization, registered in Greece, called The Plato’s Academy Centre, with the aim of making this dream come true. It’s still in its infancy but we’ve already created a flourishing online community as the first phase of our project to bring philosophy back to the grounds of Plato’s Academy.

The Lyceum

The Lyceum was one of the other gymnasia of ancient Athens. It’s most famous as the location chosen by Aristotle, one of Plato’s students, for his own philosophy school. However, before his time, other intellectuals taught there. According to one story, Protagoras, the first and most famous of the Sophists, had his controversial book On the Gods read here, which appears to have been an early statement of agnosticism.

As to the gods, I have no means of knowing either that they exist or that they do not exist. For many are the obstacles that impede knowledge, both the obscurity of the question and the shortness of human life. — Protagoras, On the Gods

After Aristotle’s time, we’re told that Chrysippus, the third head (scholarch) of the Stoic School lectured here for a while.

Today, the Lyceum is a beautiful garden, which contains the ruins of a palaestra, or wrestling school. There’s a ticket office, where you must pay for entry, so the site is protected from vandals, and well looked after. It is located in Kolonaki, one of the most affluent suburbs of Athens, beside the National Gardens of Athens, and about 20 minutes walk from the Acropolis, and centre of the city.

The Acropolis and Parthenon

You can’t miss the Acropolis, the huge rock at the centre of Athens, where the Parthenon, or temple of Athena Parthenos (the virgin), the patron goddess of Athens, overlooks the city. It was originally a primitive hill fort, which evolved over the centuries into a stunning temple complex, symbolizing the height of Athens’ power.

Ancient philosophers, such as Plato and the Stoics, often refer to the notion of contemplating mortal events as though seen from high above. This perspective would have been familiar to ancient Athenians as the view from atop the Acropolis, looking down on the agora, where most of the business of the city took place, far below. This is the perspective of Athena, the view from above, looking over Athens.

This is a fine saying of Plato: That he who is discoursing about men should look also at earthly things as if he viewed them from some higher place. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, 7.48

Marcus goes on to describe looking down on events of daily life, in agoras, or city centres like the Ancient Agora of Athens. In another passage, he actually mentions an acropolis:

The mind which is free from violent passions is an acropolis, for man has nothing more secure to which he can fly for refuge and in the future be unassailable. — Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, 8.48

Today, the Acropolis is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Athens, located in the very centre of the city. There are many locations around the city from which it can be viewed in all its glory, such as at the top of nearby Mount Lycabettus. You can also buy a ticket to enter the grounds and climb up the Acropolis to visit the Parthenon.

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus

There are also a number of important archeological ruins on the slopes of the Acropolis. The Odeon of Herodes Atticus is an impressive ancient theatre, still in use today for musical performances. The Foo Fighters, for instance, recorded a concert here in 2017, and Bill Murray recently released a documentary of his musical show here. Herodes Atticus was a wealthy Greek orator, and a family friend of Marcus Aurelius. He grew up in the same household, at Rome, as Marcus’ mother.

Herodes was the leading figure in a movement known as the Second Sophistic, during his lifetime, the most pre-eminent Sophist, and effectively a billionaire philanthropist, responsible for several major buildings. However, he was hated by the Athenians, and frequently embroiled in controversy, e.g., being accused at one point of kicking to death his pregnant wife. During another trial, he lost his temper with Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and lunged toward him, risking being cut down by the praetorian prefect.

Marcus does not seem to have had a high opinion of Herodes. Although, he lists mosts of his main teachers in the first book of the Meditations, praising their virtues, he never mentions Herodes, despite the fact he as a family friend, and undoubtedly the most famous intellectual involved in Marcus’ education. Ignoring Herodes Atticus, Marcus instead praises a humble, unnamed slave, who looked after him and tutored him, as a small boy, in his grandfather’s household.

The Theatre of Dionysus

Near the Odeon of Herodes Atticus, lies the older Theatre of Dionysus, where many plays were performed, including The Clouds of Aristophanes. The Clouds ridiculed Socrates, during his lifetime, and helped fuel the gossip that led to the philosopher’s trial and execution. According to one story, some visitors from another Greek city were puzzled by the portrayal of this controversial figure on stage and asked who this man was. Socrates happened to be sitting near them in the audience and smiling, introduced himself to the whole audience, showing that he was completely unfazed by the harsh satire of him being performed on stage.

The Theatre was later restored under the Roman Empire, and sculptures from this era still stand there depicting crouching Silenos figures, which arguably bear a resemblance to earlier depictions of Socrates.

The Areopagus

The Areopagus is a famous rock outcrop at the foot of the Acropolis, which served as a meeting place for political councils. It is also the location of a famous New Testament episode, called the Areopagus Sermon. Curiously, in this passage, from the Acts of the Apostles, we’re actually told that St. Paul spoke to an audience of Epicurean and Stoic philosophers here, and quoted lines from the ancient Greek poet Aratus, a student of Zeno of Citium, and possibly himself a Stoic philosopher.

The Ancient Agora of Athens

The Agora, meaning marketplace or city-centre, of ancient Athens was at the foot of the Acropolis. Socrates became associated with the agora as he chose to spend most of his time in the shops here, discussing philosophy with strangers, and his circle of friends. It is also believed that the trial of Socrates took place in the agora and that he was imprisoned and executed here.

Today the Ancient Agora is one of the most important tourist attractions in Athens, next to the Acropolis. There is a ticket booth and you pay for entry. The grounds are full of impressive archeological ruins, including the prominent temple of Hephaestus, patron god of blacksmiths, and other tradesmen. Overlooking the Ancient Agora is a large building called the Stoa of Attalos, which is actually a modern reconstruction of an ancient Greek stoa, or colonnade, two stories tall, which houses the Museum of the Ancient Agora. This is a small museum but it contains many pieces of sculpture unearthed in the grounds of the agora, including a stunning bust of Emperor Antoninus Pius, the adoptive father of Marcus Aurelius.

According to legend, Socrates spent much of his time in the shop of a cobbler called Simon. After Socrates died, Simon wrote the first Socratic dialogues, although his works are all lost today. This seemed like a fanciful myth, as Socrates was well-known for going around barefoot and placing him in a shoemaker’s shop seems deliberately ironic. However, archeologists recently unearthed cobblers nails in the ruins of a shop and, to their astonishment, nearby they also found the broken base of a kylix, or wine cup, which clearly has the name SIMON scratched upon it. This ceramic fragment can be seen exhibited in the Museum of the Ancient Agora today, and it arguably proves that Simon the Cobbler was a real person after all. Another surprising find, also exhibited in the Museum of the Ancient Agora, was a small statuette, which appears to be of Socrates himself, and was found in the ruins of the state prison, where we believe he was executed. It is as though the Athenians later felt remorse for having killed him and set up a shrine commemorating Socrates in the place where he was put to death.

The Stoa Poikile

The Stoa Poikile, or Painted Porch, was a colonnade on the edge of the Ancient Agora, facing toward the Acropolis. This is an important location because the Stoic school, which met there for centuries, was named after the Stoa Poikile. The Stoics set up their school, in other words, in the agora, among the hubbub of the city centre, where Socrates had once discussed philosophy. This perhaps marked a return to the “street philosophy” of Socrates, after Plato and Aristotle had retreated to teach in gymnasia outside the city walls.

The Stoa Poikile got its name because its wall displayed four huge paintings depicting historical and mythological battles. In a sense, it housed a small art gallery. During the life of Socrates, Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian War, and the victors, Sparta, placed the city under the control of a military junta, called the Thirty Tyrants. The Thirty rounded up 1,400 immigrants and Democrats, seized their assets, and reputedly executed them at this location. If true, the Stoics must have realized their school met at the scene of one of the darkest incidents in Athenian history, where thousands of citizens had been summarily executed under the orders of a group of political tyrants.

Today, the ruins are in an area closed to the public, although visible through a fence. Part of the foundations of the Stoa Poikile are exposed, although the is hidden underneath adjacent buildings. Although once part of the Ancient Agora, the archeological site is separated from the rest by a train track and it is surrounded by shop and cafes on three sides. The American School for Classical Studies in Athens (ASCSA), the largest foreign archeological institute in Athens, has recently acquired some of the adjacent properties, which means they can be demolished, allowing archeologists access to the ruins underneath.

The Temple of Apollo at Delphi

Delphi was a nearby city, based around an ancient Temple to Apollo, which housed the famous Pythia, or priestess of Apollo, also known as the Delphic Oracle. The oracle was the source of many famous pronouncements. Perhaps most famously, for philosophers, it was the Delphic Oracle who pronounced that no man was wiser than Socrates, when consulted by his childhood friend, Chaerephon. In the Apology of Plato, which portrays Socrates’ defence speech during his trial, this incident features prominently. Socrates claims that he was forced to begin questioning others to try to prove that they had more wisdom than him, and show the oracle must be mistaken. That was the origin of his trademark Socratic Method, or the “question and answer” approach to doing philosophy. Socrates, effectively, says that the god Apollo, speaking through his oracle, assigned him the philosophical mission, which led to his trial.

The oracle also played an important role in the origin of Stoicism. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school, was not an Athenian citizen but a Phoenician dye merchant, from Cyprus, who had been shipwrecked at the port of Piraeus, neighbouring ancient Athens. He traded a precious dye called Tyrian purple, made from the fermented innards of the murex sea snail. Zeno consulted the Delphic Oracle who pronounced, in typically cryptic fashion, that he should “take on the colour of dead men”. He was puzzled by this at first but eventually took it to mean that instead of dying fancy clothes purple, with dead sea snails, he should transform his own character, by dying his mind with the wisdom of dead philosophers, from previous generations. The philosopher Zeno appears to have been most impressed with was Socrates.

The famous maxims Know thyself and Nothing in Excess inscribed at the temple entrance became motifs in Greek philosophy…

Apollo was the patron god of the arts and, in a sense, this included philosophy. The Delphic Oracle was associated with hundreds of short maxims (typically two words each), which inspired many ancient philosophers. The famous maxims Know thyself and Nothing in Excess inscribed at the temple entrance became motifs in Greek philosophy, most notably in the Socratic dialogues. Several ancient sources also claim that the pre socratic philosopher, Pythagoras, was taught ethical philosophy by one of the priestesses of Apollo.

Today, Delphi is about two hours’ drive from Athens. It is one of the most astounding and beautiful archeological sites in the entire world, and definitely worth a visit. There is a small museum located in the grounds surrounding of the Temple of Apollo, which contains some stunning exhibits.

The Temple of Demeter at Eleusis

Eleusis was also a neighbouring city, located near Athens. It was the home of the Temple of Demeter, where the main religious cult of the Greek world, the Eleusinian mystery religion, was based.

During the First Marcomannic War, while the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius was busy writing the notes that survive today as the Meditations, a tribe of nomadic Sarmatian horsemen called the Costoboci, rode all the way from their home (modern-day Romania) through the Balkans, to Eleusis, where they sacked the Temple of Demeter. Marcus swore an oath around this time that after the war he would travel to Greece, in order to be initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries there. He was true to his word and visited Athens and Eleusis in 175 CE. Marcus had the temple complex rebuilt and fortified, and a bust of him, was erected over the main gate, surrounded by poppy flowers, a traditional symbol of the goddess Demeter. That statue still survives today, and can be seen among the ruins at Eleusis. (Although recently it’s head has fallen off, or perhaps been removed for repairs!)

Today, Eleusis, known as Elefsina in modern Greek, is a small town about an hour’s drive from Athens. It is a poor industrial region, lacking the splendor of Delphi. However, the ruins of the Eleusinian temple complex are quite extensive, spanning a small hill, which overlooks the nearby gulf. There is a small archeological museum at Elefsina, although I’ve never visited it because it was closed for several years, at the time when I visited.

What is Missing?

I mentioned there were three main gymnasia in ancient Athens. You can still visit the ruins of the Academy and Lyceum but the third, of the Cynosarges, or “White Dog”, nothing remains, and we’re not even certain of its location. The Cynosarges was where poorer citizens, and foreign immigrants, exercised and socialized, outside the city walls. It contained a shrine dedicated to the god Hercules. Socrates’ student, Antisthenes, a forerunner of the Cynic school, used to teach here, and it may later have become associated with Cynicism — there’s an obvious similarity between the name of the gymnasia (“White Dog”) and the school (Cynic means “Dog”). There is a modern suburb called Cynosarges but it’s unknown whether this actually corresponds to the location of the original gymnasium.

You also won’t find anything remaining of the famous Garden of Epicurus, a private, walled garden located outside the city walls. It’s exact location is unknown but it was said to lie somewhere between Plato’s Academy and the Dipylon or main gate in the city walls of Athens.

You may also stumble across a small cave in the slopes of Philopappos Hill, signposted as “The Prison of Socrates”. This is based on folklore and whatever purpose the cave originally served, there’s no evidence to suggest it was actually the prison of Socrates. Indeed, it is believed that Socrates was held in the state prison located in the middle of the Ancient Agora, the ruined foundations of which still exist today.

Conclusion

Let me know in the comments if you think I’ve missed anything, and I’ll be happy to update the article. I’ve only dealt with the locations of archeological ruins here and haven’t mentioned various other museums, which contain exhibits of interest to students of philosophy. The two best museums in Athens, in my opinion, are the Acropolis Museum and National Archeological Museum. The Benaki Museum and Numismatic Museum are also worth visiting, as is the Museum of Cycladic Art, although it relates to an earlier period in Greek history.

I hope you get a chance to visit Athens and see some of these amazing historical locations, especially the Acropolis, Agora, and nearby Delphi and Eleusis. If you’re interested in bringing philosophy back to Plato’s Academy Park, check out our Plato’s Academy Centre nonprofit startup, particularly the page explaining ways you can support the project.